wayfinding in Healthcare Environments: Investigating wayfinding Behavior Under Emergency Conditions

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Master of Architecture, Department of of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.

2 Assistant Professor, Department of of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.

3 Professor, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education and Psychology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.

Abstract

Complexity in contemporary cities and buildings- especially for newcomers- may affect man-environment relations regarding finding the right path to a destination. For many years, architects and urban designers have dealt with a big concern about wayfinding in outdoor and indoor environments. One may discuss wayfinding for a large network of paths associated solely with cities, but research has found buildings as a challenging context for people to find their ways. Romedi Passini and Paul Arthur (1992) developed theories on wayfinding to indoor environments. Through experimental studies, they found environmental and human attributes affecting wayfinding. Research has categorized the findings into classes as strategies extracted from environmental physical aspects used by people in appropriate situations. This study examines wayfinding in healthcare environments (hospital), which serves many people everyday. Having a wide range of healthcare services, hospitals should provide a diverse set of spaces connecting to each other. In addition, time plays an essential role. So, taking patients to the right destination, paths must work effectively. Looking through the researches on wayfinding and considering results in healthcare environments, we found a lack. Emergency conditions, which may change the  findings, were neglected in most researches. So, considering such stressful situations, we designed an experimental research in a hospital in Tehran, Iran. The research had 9 participants (4 men, 5 women) find 3 destinations. Recall that the survey accomplished in pandemic. We selected a hospital from 3 hospitals for its complexity, lots of users, and accessibility to the maps and documents. Participants were requested not to ask others for the address. They should have thought loudly about where they intent to go, why they took a path and which environmental attributes they recorded. To simulate emergency conditions, survey had time limits. The participants had chronometers and should have checked it along the paths. We engaged two persons recording participants’ behavior maps and thoughts. Through a systematic and unsystematic observation, six strategies were examined in all nodes and throughout the paths: straight path, avoiding vertical change, brightest path, wider path, signs, and plenty of probable decision making nodes. Analyses on participants’ wayfinding behavior showed three different interpretations on nodes where people chose strategies to take the paths: a) strategies failed to be ascribed, b) strategies not aligned with the previous findings, and c) strategies aligned with the previous findings. Contrary to the previous results, half of the participants did not take “straight and longer paths” in the potential nodes. The result confirmed people dislike changing floors. Research on how brightness affect wayfinding in hospitals should be repeated since there were no discrepancies on brightness in the paths. In line with previous results, participants’ behavior showed an intention to choose wider paths. They also frequently pointed to the sings- special architectural and functional fixed signs- to find their way. As for the last strategy, participants preferred to have less decision making nodes since conditions had limited time. We concluded that the strategies not aligned with previous findings rooted in the conditions were ignored. Designers could benefit from the findings.

Keywords

Main Subjects


بخارائی، صالحه (1393): معماری و فضامندی: نحو توالی فضاهای مرتبط با یک اپیزود در معنای عاطفی فضامندی، پایانه نامه جهت اخذ مدرک دکتری معماری، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی.
Abu-Ghazzeh, T. M. (1996). Movement and wayfinding in the King Saud University built environment: A look at freshman orientation and environmental information. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 16(4), 303-318.
Aliaga, D. G., Rosen, P. A., & Bekins, D. R. (2007). Style grammars for interactive visualization of architecture. IEEE transactions on visualization and computer graphics, 13(4), 786-797.
Arthur, P., & Passini, R. (1992). Wayfinding: people, signs, and architecture.
Arthur, P., & Passini, R. (2002). Wayfinding-People, Signs, and Architecture.(1ª.
Bafna, S. (2003). Space syntax: A brief introduction to its logic and analytical techniques. Environment and behavior, 35(1), 17-29.
Bailenson, J. N., Shum, M. S., & Uttal, D. H. (2000). The initial segment strategy: A heuristic for route selection. Memory & Cognition, 28(2), 306-318.
Beneš, B., Št'ava, O., Měch, R., & Miller, G. (2011, April). Guided procedural modeling. In Computer graphics forum (Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 325-334). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Boerger, M. A., & Henley, T. B. (1999). The use of analogy in giving instructions. The Psychological Record, 49(2), 193-209. Boyce, P. R. (2003). Human factors in lighting. Crc Press.
Boyce, P. R. (2004). Lighting research for interiors: the beginning of the end or the end of the beginning. Lighting Research & Technology, 36(4), 283-293.
Brandon, K. (2008). Wayfinding.
Brösamle, M., & Hölscher, C. (2007). How do Humans Interpret Configuration. In Proceedings of the Sixth International Space Syntax Symposium.
Butcher, E. G., & Parnell, A. C. (1983). Design for fire safety.
Butler, D. L., Acquino, A. L., Hissong, A. A., & Scott, P. A. (1993). Wayfinding by newcomers in a complex building. Human factors, 35(1), 159-173.
Carpman, J. R., & Grant, M. A. (1993). Gaining access to nature. Design that Cares: Planning Health Facilities for Patients and Visitors. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 199-216.
Carpman, J. R., & Grant, M. A. (2001). No more mazes: Five learable skills for finding your way around confusing places. Unpublished manuscript. Ann Arbor, MI: Carpman Grant Associates.
Carpman, J. R., & Grant, M. A. (2002). Wayfinding: A broad view.
Carpman, J. R., & Grant, M. A. (2016). Design that cares: Planning health facilities for patients and visitors. John Wiley & Sons.
Chalmers, D. J., & Knight, R. G. (1985). The reliability of ratings of the familiarity of environmental stimuli: A generalizability analysis. Environment and Behavior, 17(2), 223-238.
Chang, Y. J., & Wang, T. Y. (2010). Indoor wayfinding based on wireless sensor networks for individuals with multiple special needs. Cybernetics and Systems: An International Journal, 41(4), 317-333.
Christenfeld, N. (1995). Choices from identical options. Psychological Science, 6(1), 50-55.
Cornell, E. H., Heth, C. D., & Broda, L. S. (1989). Children's wayfinding: Response to instructions to use environmental landmarks. Developmental Psychology, 25(5), 755.
Couclelis, H., Golledge, R. G., Gale, N., & Tobler, W. (1987). Exploring the anchor-point hypothesis of spatial cognition. Journal of environmental psychology, 7(2), 99-122.
Credé, S. (2019). The benefits of global landmarks for spatial learning under stress (Doctoral dissertation, University of Zurich). Cubukcu, E., & Nasar, J. L. (2005). Relation of physical form to spatial knowledge in largescale virtual environments. Environment and Behavior, 37(3), 397-417.
Cutmore, T. R., Hine, T. J., Maberly, K. J., Langford, N. M., & Hawgood, G. (2000). Cognitive and gender factors influencing navigation in a virtual environment. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 53(2), 223-249.
Dalke, H., Little, J., Niemann, E., Camgoz, N., Steadman, G., Hill, S., & Stott, L. (2006). Colour and lighting in hospital design. Optics & Laser Technology, 38(4-6), 343-365.
Dalton, R. (2001). The secret is to follow your nose: Route path selection and angularity.
Dalton, R. C. (2003). The secret is to follow your nose: Route path selection and angularity. Environment and Behavior, 35(1), 107-131.
Dalton, R. C., Hölscher, C., & Montello, D. R. (2019). Wayfinding as a social activity. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 142.
Dalton, R. C., Troffa, R., Zacharias, J., & Hoelscher, C. (2011). Visual information in the built environment and its effect on wayfinding and explorative behavior. Urban diversities–environmental and social issues, 6-76.
Demirbaş, G. U. D. (2001). Spatial familiarity as a dimension of wayfinding (Doctoral dissertation, Bilkent Universitesi (Turkey)).
Dogu, U., & Erkip, F. (2000). Spatial factors affecting wayfinding and orientation: A case study in a shopping mall. Environment and behavior, 32(6), 731-755.
Downs, R. M., & Stea, D. (Eds.). (1973). Image and environment: Cognitive mapping and spatial behavior. Transaction Publishers.
Downs, R. M., & Stea, D. (2011). Cognitive Maps and Spatial Behaviour: Process and Products, The Map Reader: Theories of Mapping Practice and Cartographic Representation.
Dubey, R. K., Sohn, S. S., Hoelscher, C., & Kapadia, M. (2019, July). Fusion-Based Wayfinding Prediction Model for Multiple Information Sources. In 2019 22th International Conference on Information Fusion (FUSION) (pp. 1-8). IEEE.
Duckham, M., & Kulik, L. (2003, September). “Simplest” paths: automated route selection for navigation. In International Conference on Spatial Information Theory (pp. 169-185). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Evans, G. W. (1980). Environmental cognition. Psychological bulletin, 88(2), 259.
Evans, G. W., Skorpanich, M. A., Gärling, T., Bryant, K. J., & Bresolin, B. (1984). The effects of pathway configuration, landmarks and stress on environmental cognition. Journal of environmental psychology, 4(4), 323-335.
Farr, A. C., Kleinschmidt, T., Yarlagadda, P., & Mengersen, K. (2012). Wayfinding: A simple concept, a complex process. Transport Reviews, 32(6), 715-743.
Farr, A. C., Kleinschmidt, T., Johnson, S., Yarlagadda, P. K., & Mengersen, K. (2014). Investigating effective wayfinding in airports: a Bayesian network approach. Transport, 29(1), 90-99.
Fewings, R. (2001). Wayfinding and airport terminal design. The journal of navigation, 54(2), 177-184.
Frankenstein, J., Brüssow, S., Ruzzoli, F., & Hölscher, C. (2012). The language of landmarks: the role of background knowledge in indoor wayfinding. Cognitive processing, 13(1), 165-170.
Frankenstein, J., Büchner, S. J., Tenbrink, T., & Hölscher, C. (2010, August). Influence of geometry and objects on local route choices during wayfinding. In International Conference on Spatial Cognition (pp. 41-53). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. Caduff, D., & Timpf, S. (2008). On the assessment of landmark salience for human navigation. Cognitive processing, 9(4), 249-267.
Gärling, T. (1999). Sequential Spatial Choice. Wayfinding behavior: Cognitive mapping and other spatial processes, 81. Garling, T., Book, A., & Lindberg, E. (1984). Cognitive mapping of large-scale environments: The interrelationship of action plans, acquisition, and orientation. Environment and behavior, 16(1), 3-34.
Gath-Morad, M., Aguilar, L., Dalton, R. C., & Hölscher, C. (2020, May). cogarch: Simulating wayfinding by architecture in multilevel buildings. In Proceedings of the 11th Annual Symposium on Simulation for Architecture and Urban Design (pp. 1-8).
Ghamari, H. (2014). Examining eye fixations during wayfinding in unfamiliar environments (Doctoral dissertation). Golledge, R. G. (Ed.). (1999). Wayfinding behavior: Cognitive mapping and other spatial processes. JHU press.
Goodman, J., Dickinson, A., & Syme, A. (2004a). Gathering requirements for mobile devices using focus groups with older people. In Designing a More Inclusive World (pp. 81-90). Springer, London.
Goodman, J., Gray, P., Khammampad, K., & Brewster, S. (2004b). Using landmarks to support older people in navigation. In International Conference on Mobile Human-Computer Interaction (pp. 38-48). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Haq, S. (1999). Expectation of exploration: Evaluating the effects of environmental variables on wayfinding.
Haq, S. U. (2001). Complex architectural settings: An investigation of spatial and cognitive variables through wayfinding behavior. Georgia Institute of Technology.
Haq, S., Hill, G., & Pramanik, A. (2009). Topological configuration in wayfinding and spatial cognition: a study with real and virtual buildings for design relevance. Leadership in Architectural Research, 171.
Haq, S., & Zimring, C. (2003). Just down the road a piece: The development of topological knowledge of building layouts. Environment and behavior, 35(1), 132-160.
Hart, R. A., & Moore, G. T. (1973). The development of spatial cognition: A review. AldineTransaction.
Hawksworth, N. (2000). Finding your way about. Architects' Journal, 212(4), 39.
Helbing, D., Farkas, I., & Vicsek, T. (2000). Simulating dynamical features of escape panic. Nature, 407(6803), 487-490. Hidayetoglu, M. L., Yildirim, K., & Akalin, A. (2012). The effects of color and light on indoor wayfinding and the evaluation of the perceived environment. Journal of environmental psychology, 32(1), 50-58.
Hillier, B., Hanson, J., & Peponis, J. (1984). What do we mean by building function?. E & FN Spon Ltd.
Hochmair, H., & Frank, A. U. (2000). Influence of estimation errors on wayfinding-decisions in unknown street networks–analyzing the least-angle strategy. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 2(4), 283-313.
Hochmair, H. H., & Karlsson, V. (2004, October). Investigation of preference between the least-angle strategy and the initial segment strategy for route selection in unknown environments. In International Conference on Spatial Cognition (pp. 79-97). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Hölscher, C., Brösamle, M., & Vrachliotis, G. (2012). Challenges in multilevel wayfinding: A case study with the space syntax technique. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 39(1), 63-82.
Hölscher, C., Büchner, S., & Strube, G. (2013). Multi-floor buildings and human wayfinding cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36(5), 551.
Hölscher, C., Meilinger, T., Vrachliotis, G., Brösamle, M., & Knauff, M. (2004, October). Finding the way inside: Linking architectural design analysis and cognitive processes. In International conference on spatial cognition (pp. 1-23). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Hölscher, C., Meilinger, T., Vrachliotis, G., Brösamle, M., & Knauff, M. (2006). Up the down staircase: Wayfinding strategies in multi-level buildings. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 26(4), 284-299.
Hoogendoorn, S. P., & Bovy, P. H. (2004). Pedestrian route-choice and activity scheduling theory and models. Transportation Research Part B: Methodological, 38(2), 169-190.
Huelat, B. J. (2004). The elements of a caring environment-wayfinding. Healthcare Design. Magazine Cleveland.
Kallai, J., Makany, T., Csatho, A., Karadi, K., Horvath, D., Kovacs-Labadi, B., ... & Jacobs, J. W. (2007). Cognitive and affective aspects of thigmotaxis strategy in humans. Behavioral neuroscience, 121(1), 21.
Kang, J. (2004). The effect of light on the movement of people. University of Minnesota.
Kaplan, S. (1976). Adaptation, structure and knowledge.
Kaplan, S. (1982). Where cognition and affect meet: A theoretical analysis of preference. EDRA: Environmental Design Research Association.
Knez, I., & Kers, C. (2000). Effects of indoor lighting, gender, and age on mood and cognitive performance. Environment and Behavior, 32(6), 817-831.
Kimura, D. (1992). Sex differences in the brain. Scientific american, 267(3), 118-125.
Kitchin, R. M. (1994). Cognitive maps: What are they and why study them?. Journal of environmental psychology, 14(1), 1-19.
Krukar, J., Mavros, P., & Hoelscher, C. (2020, June). Towards capturing focal/ambient attention during dynamic wayfinding. In ACM Symposium on Eye Tracking Research and Applications (pp. 1-5).
Lang, J. (1987). Creating architectural theory. The role of the behavioral sciences in environmental. design.
Lawton, C. A. (1994). Gender differences in way-finding strategies: Relationship to spatial ability and spatial anxiety. Sex roles, 30(11), 765-779.
Lawton, C. A. (1996). Strategies for indoor wayfinding: The role of orientation. Journal of environmental psychology, 16(2), 137-145.
Lawton, C. A., Charleston, S. I., & Zieles, A. S. (1996). Individual-and gender-related differences in indoor wayfinding. Environment and Behavior, 28(2), 204-219.
Li, R., & Klippel, A. (2012). Wayfinding in libraries: Can problems be predicted?. Journal of Map & Geography Libraries, 8(1), 21-38.
Li, R., & Klippel, A. (2016). Wayfinding behaviors in complex buildings: The impact of environmental legibility and familiarity. Environment and Behavior, 48(3), 482-510.
Li, H., Thrash, T., Hölscher, C., & Schinazi, V. R. (2019). The effect of crowdedness on human wayfinding and locomotion in a multi-level virtual shopping mall. Journal of environmental psychology, 65, 101320.
Linn, M. C., & Petersen, A. C. (1985). Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child development, 1479-1498.
Lovelace, K. L., Hegarty, M., & Montello, D. R. (1999, August). Elements of good route directions in familiar and unfamiliar environments. In International conference on spatial information theory (pp. 65-82). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the environment. The image of the city, 11, 1-13.
Mast, V., Jian, C., & Zhekova, D. (2012). Elaborate descriptive information in indoor route instructions. In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (Vol. 34, No. 34).
May, A. J., Ross, T., Bayer, S. H., & Tarkiainen, M. J. (2003). Pedestrian navigation aids: information requirements and design implications. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 7(6), 331-338.
Meziani, R., & Hussien, H. A. (2017). A study on the space layout and configuration of shopping malls in relation to pedestrian movement behavior-case of UAE. International review for spatial planning and sustainable development, 5(3), 53-65.
Miller, J., & Carlson, L. (2011). Selecting landmarks in novel environments. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 18(1), 184-191. Miller, C., & Lewis, D. (1999). Wayfinding: Effective wayfinding and signing systems; guidance for healthcare facilities. Stationery Office.
Moeser, S. D. (1988). Cognitive mapping in a complex building. Environment and Behavior, 20(1), 21-49.
Moore, G. T., & Golledge, R. G. (1976). Environmental knowing: Theories, research and methods. Dowden.
Montello, D. R., & Pick Jr, H. L. (1993). Integrating knowledge of vertically aligned large-scale spaces. Environment and Behavior, 25(3), 457-484.
Natapov, A., Parush, A., Laufer, L., & Fisher-Gewirtzman, D. (2022). Architectural features and indoor evacuation wayfinding: The starting point matters. Safety science, 145, 105483.
Neisser, U. (1977). Gibson's ecological optics: Consequences of a different stimulus description. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour.
Nurmi, P., Salovaara, A., Bhattacharya, S., Pulkkinen, T., & Kahl, G. (2011, February). Influence of landmark-based navigation instructions on user attention in indoor smart spaces. In Proceedings of the 16th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces (pp. 33-42).
Ohm, C., Müller, M., & Ludwig, B. (2015). Displaying landmarks and the user’s surroundings in indoor pedestrian navigation systems. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Smart Environments, 7(5), 635-657.
O'Neill, M. J. (1991). Effects of signage and floor plan configuration on wayfinding accuracy. Environment and behavior, 23(5), 553-574.
O'Neill, M. J. (1992). Effects of familiarity and plan complexity on wayfinding in simulated buildings. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 12(4), 319-327.
Passini, R. E. (1977). WAYFINDING: A STUDY OF SPATIAL PROBLEM-SOLVING WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR PHYSICAL DESIGN. The Pennsylvania State University.
Passini, R. (1984). Spatial representations, a wayfinding perspective. Journal of environmental psychology, 4(2), 153-164. Passini, R. (1994). Graphics and architecture of wayfinding. Proceedings of Public Graphics. The Netherlands.
Passini, R. (1996). Wayfinding design: logic, application and some thoughts on universality. Design Studies, 17(3), 319-331. Passini, R., Rainville, C., Marchand, N., & Joanette, Y. (1995). Wayfinding in dementia of the Alzheimer type: planning abilities. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 17(6), 820-832.
Passini, R., Pigot, H., Rainville, C., & Tétreault, M. H. (2000). Wayfinding in a nursing home for advanced dementia of the Alzheimer’s type. Environment and Behavior, 32(5), 684-710.
Pati, D., Harvey Jr, T. E., Willis, D. A., & Pati, S. (2015). Identifying elements of the health care environment that contribute to wayfinding. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 8(3), 44-67.
Peponis, J., Zimring, C., & Choi, Y. K. (1990). Finding the building in wayfinding. Environment and behavior, 22(5), 555-590. Plumert, J. M., Ewert, K., & Spear, S. J. (1995). The early development of children's communication about nested spatial relations. Child Development, 66(4), 959-969.
Presson, C. C., & Montello, D. R. (1988). Points of reference in spatial cognition: Stalking the elusive landmark. British Journal of Developmental Psychology.
Radoczky, V. (2007). How to design a pedestrian navigation system for indoor and outdoor environments. In Location based services and telecartography (pp. 301-316). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Raubal, M., & Winter, S. (2002, September). Enriching wayfinding instructions with local landmarks. In International conference on geographic information science (pp. 243-259). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Read, M. A. (2003). Use of color in child care environments: Application of color for wayfinding and space definition in Alabama child care environments. Early Childhood Education Journal, 30(4), 233-239.
Richter, K. F., & Winter, S. (2014). Landmarks. Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London. doi, 10, 978-3. Rooke, C. N., Tzortzopoulos, P., Koskela, L., & Rooke, J. (2009). Wayfinding: embedding knowledge in hospital environments.
Rooke, C. N., Koskela, L. J., & Tzortzopoulos, P. (2010, July). Achieving a lean wayfinding system in complex hospital environments: Design and through-life management. In Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the International Group for Lean Construction (pp. 233-242). The International Group for Lean Construction.
Ruddle, R. A., & Péruch, P. (2004). Effects of proprioceptive feedback and environmental characteristics on spatial learning in virtual environments. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 60(3), 299-326.
Sadalla, E. K., & Magel, S. G. (1980). The perception of traversed distance. Environment and Behavior, 12(1), 65-79. Schmitz, S. (1997). Gender-related strategies in environmental development: Effects of anxiety on wayfinding in and representation of a three-dimensional maze. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 17(3), 215-228.
Siegel, A. W., & White, S. H. (1975). The development of spatial representations of large-scale environments. Advances in child development and behavior, 10, 9-55.
Slone, E., Burles, F., Robinson, K., Levy, R. M., & Iaria, G. (2015). Floor plan connectivity influences wayfinding performance in virtual environments. Environment and behavior, 47(9), 1024-1053.
Soeda, M., Kushiyama, N., & Ohno, R. (1997). Wayfinding in cases with vertical motion. Proceedings of MERA, 97, 559-564.
Sorrows, M. E., & Hirtle, S. C. (1999, August). The nature of landmarks for real and electronic spaces. In International conference on spatial information theory (pp. 37-50). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Taylor, L. H., & Socov, E. W. (1974). The movement of people toward lights. Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, 3(3), 237-241.
Thorndyke, P. W., & Hayes-Roth, B. (1982). Differences in spatial knowledge acquired from maps and navigation. Cognitive psychology, 14(4), 560-589.
Turner, A. (2007). From axial to road-centre lines: a new representation for space syntax and a new model of route choice for transport network analysis. Environment and Planning B: planning and Design, 34(3), 539-555.
Vilar, E., Rebelo, F., Noriega, P., Duarte, E., & Mayhorn, C. B. (2014). Effects of competing environmental variables and signage on route-choices in simulated everyday and emergency wayfinding situations. Ergonomics, 57(4), 511-524.
von Stülpnagel, R., & Frankenstein, J. (2015). Configurational salience of landmarks: an analysis of sketch maps using Space Syntax. Cognitive processing, 16(1), 437-441.
Weisman, J. (1981). Evaluating architectural legibility: Way-finding in the built environment. Environment and behavior, 13(2), 189-204.
Weisman, G. D., O'Neill, M. J., & Doll, C. A. (1987). Computer graphic simulation of wayfinding in a public environment: a validation study. In Environmental Design Research Association Proceedings (Vol. 18, pp. 74-80).
Wiener, J. M., Schnee, A., & Mallot, H. A. (2004). Use and interaction of navigation strategies in regionalized environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(4), 475-493.
Willham, D. B. (1992). The topological properties of wayfinding in architecture (Doctoral dissertation, Georgia Institute of Technology). Winter, S. (2003, September). Route adaptive selection of salient features. In International conference on spatial information theory (pp. 349-361). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Winter, S., Raubal, M., & Nothegger, C. (2004). Focalizing measures of salience for route directions. Map-Based Mobile Services-Theories, Methods and Design Implementations, Springer Geosciences. Berlin: Springer.
Wright, P., Hull, A. J., & Lickorish, A. (1993). NAVIGATING IN A HOSPITAL OUTPATIENTS'DEPARTMENT: THE MERITS OF MAPS AND WALL SIGNS. Journal of Architectural and Planning research, 76-89.
Yesiltepe, D., Conroy Dalton, R., & Ozbil Torun, A. (2021). Landmarks in wayfinding: a review of the existing literature. Cognitive Processing, 22(3), 369-410.
Yi, J., Lee, H. C. Y., Parsons, R., & Falkmer, T. (2015). The effect of the global positioning system on the driving performance of people with mild Alzheimer's disease. Gerontology, 61(1), 79-88.
Zacharias, J. (2001). Pedestrian behavior pedestrian behavior and perception in urban walking environments. Journal of planning literature, 16(1), 3-18.
Zacharias, J. (2002, November). Choosing a path in the underground: visual information and preference. In ACUUS International Conference Urban underground space: a resource for cities, Torino (pp. 14-16).
Zijlstra, E., Hagedoorn, M., Krijnen, W. P., van der Schans, C. P., & Mobach, M. P. (2016). Route complexity and simulated physical ageing negatively influence wayfinding. Applied ergonomics, 56, 62-67.